Durkheim’s Theory of Religion

Emile Durkheim's theory of religion is primarily elaborated in his 1912 work, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life.

In this foundational text, Durkheim investigates the origins and social functions of religion, arguing that religion arises from society, not from individual psychology. His main concern was understanding how society maintains cohesion, and he saw religion as a key mechanism in this process.

Durkheim emphasized that religion is a collective phenomenon—it derives its meaning and authority from the group. He proposed that the relationship between individuals and the divine is symbolic of the relationship between individuals and their community.

Religion thus acts as a social glue, reinforcing collective beliefs and shared moral values, making it a universal and enduring institution across societies.

To illustrate his theory, Durkheim studied the Australian Aboriginal tribes, identifying the most basic, elementary forms of religion. He concluded that the communal emotional experience and ritual practices within these tribes were central to the emergence and continuity of religious life.

A Functionalist Perspective of Religion

The functionalist perspective views religion as a social institution that plays a key role in maintaining social stability and cohesion. Functionalists argue that religion fulfills essential functional prerequisites of society such as social solidarity, value consensus, harmony, and integration of different societal parts.

Religion is seen as an integrating force, fostering a sense of belonging and shared identity among individuals. It helps people express collective beliefs, reinforces social commitment, and sustains social solidarity. Additionally, religion acts as a central value system, affirming common ideals, values, and beliefs, and contributes to the development of collective consciousness within society.

Durkheim and The Elementary Forms of Religious Life

• Objective: To understand the fundamental nature of religion and explain why it is a universal and permanent institution in all societies.
• Method: Durkheim studied the Arunta tribe of Australian Aboriginals, focusing on their clan system and totemism.
• Approach: Rejected speculative theories like Animism (Tylor) and Naturism (Max Müller); instead, he used scientific observation to analyze religion sociologically.
• Core Idea: Religion is a collective phenomenon, not individualistic—it arises from communal life and shared beliefs.
• Totemism: Totems worshipped by tribes were symbols of the group itself; religious worship is actually society worshipping itself.
• Elementary Forms: Primitive religion reveals the basic building blocks of all religious life, which are rooted in collective consciousness.
• Function of Religion: Maintains social cohesion, creates moral constraints, and reinforces the collective conscience.
• Conclusion: Religion is real, not illusory; it expresses and reinforces the unity and moral order of society.

Durkheim’s Definition of Religion

Durkheim defines religion as:

“A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things... which unite into one single moral community called a Church all those who adhere to them.”

Key elements of this definition:

1. Beliefs and Rites:
   1. Beliefs: Ideas and attitudes regarding sacred things.
   2. Rites: Actions or practices directed toward those sacred things.
2. Sacred vs Profane:
   1. Religion fundamentally divides the world into sacred (set apart, forbidden, revered) and profane (ordinary, everyday).
3. Church:
   1. Refers not only to a religious institution but to a moral community that shares these beliefs and practices collectively.

Durkheim emphasized that religion is social in nature and serves to unify individuals through shared values and ceremonies.

Durkheim on Sacred and Profane

Durkheim considered the sacred–profane distinction as the core of all religious systems, more fundamental than belief in supernatural beings.

Key Ideas:

• Sacred: That which is set apart, revered, and treated with ritual care (e.g., gods, totems, holy texts, rituals).
• Profane: The ordinary, utilitarian aspects of everyday life, lacking religious value.
• Objects or actions become sacred or profane by social definition, not by intrinsic properties.

Religion involves:

1. Separating sacred from profane.
2. Establishing belief systems about the sacred.
3. Creating rules and taboos to regulate conduct toward the sacred.

Six Characteristics of the Sacred:

1. Always set apart from profane things.
2. Surrounded by rules and rites that dictate proper conduct.
3. Protected by interdictions (taboos) that prevent improper contact.
4. Regarded as superior and of higher dignity.
5. Serves as a model of opposites (e.g., pure/impure, holy/unholy).
6. Movement from profane to sacred requires ritual transformation (e.g., initiation rites).

Durkheim argued that this universal separation between sacred and profane is what gives religion its cohesive and regulatory power in society, guiding both individual behavior and collective identity.

Totemism as the Elementary Form of Religion – Emile Durkheim

Durkheim studied totemism among Australian aboriginal tribes, considering it the most elementary and primitive form of religion. He rejected earlier theories like animism (Tylor) and naturism (Max Müller), focusing instead on social roots of religious life.

Key Points:

• Totem: A material object (animal, plant, or inanimate) considered sacred and believed to embody spiritual power. It gives identity to the clan, which derives its name from it.
• Social Bond: Members of a totemic clan are united not by blood, but through their relationship to the same totem. The totem serves as a symbol of group solidarity.
• Sacredness: Totem is surrounded by rituals, taboos, and moral obligations. Clan members are forbidden to harm or consume the totemic species, except during certain sacred feasts.
• Churinga: A sacred object (wood/stone) marked with the totem symbol, representing the physical embodiment of the clan’s totem.
• Triad of Totemism:

1. The Totemic Emblem – Symbol of the group (e.g., churinga).
2. The Totem (Object) – Sacred species worshipped by the clan.
3. The Clan Members – Also considered sacred as they share ancestry with the totem.

Totemism reveals that religion is a collective social phenomenon. Worship of the totem is essentially the worship of society itself, and the origin of religious sentiment lies in collective life and moral unity.

Totemism and Cosmology – Emile Durkheim

Durkheim viewed religion as a primitive cosmology—a system for classifying, understanding, and organizing the world.

Key Ideas:

• Religion as Cosmology: For Durkheim, religions are not just belief systems but also frameworks for ordering the universe. They classify all aspects of the natural and social world.
• Totemic Classification: In totemism, the totem represents both the clan and elements of nature. Objects like animals, stars, and plants are grouped into categories based on the clan's social structure.
• "Same Flesh" Belief: Everything classified under a totem (including people and natural elements) is believed to share the same sacred essence. This leads to a cosmic unity between society and nature.
• Sacred and Profane Division: The sacred-profane distinction, central to Durkheim’s theory, is reflected in how totemic groups view the world—some things are revered (sacred), others are ordinary (profane).
• Social Basis of Knowledge: Durkheim argued that our understanding of the natural world originates in social and religious classification systems. The structure of society shapes the structure of thought.

Totemism is not just a religion but also a cognitive framework, a primitive yet powerful system of cosmology and social classification. It shows how religion and society are intertwined in shaping human understanding of the world.

Totem and Society – Emile Durkheim

Durkheim observed that in totemism, the totemic emblem, the totem object, and the members of the clan are all considered sacred. This sacredness pervades all aspects of the clan's identity.

Key Ideas:

• Origin of Sacredness: Durkheim traced the origin of religious energy in the diffuse sacred force found in totemism. This force later evolves into the idea of gods, spirits, and supernatural beings in complex religions.
• Dual Representation: The totem symbolises both the clan and the sacred force. It simultaneously represents the god and the society.
• Religion as Worship of Society: According to Durkheim, when people worship the totem (or god), they are essentially worshipping society itself, since society embodies moral authority, obligation, and respect.
• Superiority of Society: The sacred object is revered because it symbolizes the power and superiority of society over the individual. Society is the true source of the sacred.

Durkheim concludes that religion originates in society, and religious worship is a symbolic expression of collective life. The totem is not just a religious symbol, but a representation of society’s moral force.

Durkheim: Religious Rites and Their Social Functions

Durkheim regarded religious rites as essential to understanding how religion sustains society. Rites are structured actions directed toward sacred objects, involving interdictions (rules restricting interaction between sacred and profane).

Four Types of Religious Rites:

1. Sacrificial Rites
   1. Linked to initiation and offerings.
   2. Aim: Sanctify individuals and revive collective practices.
   3. Related to objects essential for survival (e.g., food, fertility).
   4. Reinforce group unity and respect for sacred symbols.
2. Imitative Rites
   1. Imitate animals or nature for desired outcomes (e.g., fertility).
   2. Members mimic actions/appearance of totem animals.
   3. Belief: Qualities of the imitated object are transferred to the group.
3. Commemorative Rites
   1. Re-enact the mythical history of the group and ancestors.
   2. Help preserve cultural memory and revive collective identity.
   3. Strengthen social cohesion by reminding the group of its shared origins.
4. Piacular Rites
   1. Rites of mourning, suffering, and collective loss.
   2. Performed during death, bad harvests, disasters.
   3. Function: Reaffirm group unity, heal after misfortune through shared sorrow.

Durkheim showed that religious rites are not just spiritual acts but social practices that reinforce collective consciousness, regulate behavior, and ensure the moral unity and continuity of the group.

Critical Remarks on Durkheim’s Theory of Religion

1. Neglect of Individual Agency
   1. Overemphasis on society; ignores role of religious leaders and personal faith.
2. Collective Consciousness as Vague
   1. Durkheim's concept of collective consciousness resembles social psychology, but lacks clarity or theoretical depth.
3. Overgeneralization from a Single Tribe
   1. Based primarily on the Arunta tribe of Australia; critics argue this is not representative of all religions.
   2. Ignored variation among nearby tribes or explained them arbitrarily.
4. Faulty Evolutionary Assumptions
   1. Assumes Australian totemism is the most primitive religion, which is debated.
   2. Some North American tribes have more basic religious forms.
5. Inaccuracies in Totemism Interpretation
   1. Research shows:
      • Tribe, not clan, is the main cohesive unit.
      • Totems exist without clans, and vice versa.
      • Totemic carvings are less central than Durkheim claimed.
      • High gods in Aboriginal belief did not emerge from totem synthesis.

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