Emile Durkheim -Social Facts

In this article, we are going to explore Emile Durkheim’s concept of Social Facts, a foundational idea in the discipline of sociology. Durkheim argued that sociology must study social facts as things—real, external, and coercive forces that shape human behavior in society. 

The discussion will cover:

·       Social Facts

·       Meaning of social facts

·       Types of social facts

·       Characteristics of social facts

·       Externality and constraint

·       Rules for the observation of social facts

·       Rules for distinguishing the normal and pathological

·       Rules for the explanation of social facts

·       Conclusion

Emile Durkheim defined social facts as values, norms, and structures external to the individual that exercise social constraint over behaviour. He believed sociology is the scientific study of social facts, and that these facts must be treated as 'things'—objective, observable, and measurable.

Durkheim emphasized identifying correlations between social facts to understand the laws governing society, assess if a society is 'healthy' or 'pathological', and suggest suitable interventions.

Within social facts, Durkheim distinguishes between material social facts and non material social facts

·        Material Social Facts: Tangible, institutional elements like legal codes, bureaucracy, and physical infrastructure.

·        Non-material Social Facts: Intangible elements like values, beliefs, morality, and collective consciousness.

Durkheim’s theory laid the foundation for sociology as a scientific and objective discipline distinct from psychology or philosophy.

Meaning of Social Facts

In The Rules of Sociological Method, Emile Durkheim defines social facts as the ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that are external to the individual and possess a coercive power over them. These facts transcend individual will, guiding and constraining behaviour.

Durkheim emphasized that society is a reality sui generis—a unique, collective reality distinct from individuals and the physical or biological world. Social facts are general across society, objective, and must be treated as 'things'—real, observable, and independent of individual actions or desires.

Examples include:

·        Legal codes

·        Moral norms

·        Religious beliefs

·        Language and customs

These collective representations form the foundation of society and are the core subject matter of sociology.

Types of Social Facts – Emile Durkheim

Durkheim classified social facts into the following main types:

1.    Structural or Morphological Social Facts:
These form the foundation of collective life and include the population size, density, settlement patterns, dwellings, and communication systems. They shape the physical and institutional structure of society.

2.    Institutionalised Social Facts:
These are widespread and enduring norms such as laws, moral rules, religious beliefs, and other formal societal institutions. They reflect society’s collective conscience and are binding on individuals.

3.    Non-Institutionalised Social Facts:
These are fluid and not fully crystallized norms like public opinion, temporary emotional outbursts, or crowd behaviour. They lack permanence and full external coercive power.

Durkheim also distinguished:

·        Normal social facts: Common and functional (e.g., crime in moderate levels).

·        Pathological social facts: Deviations that indicate dysfunction (e.g., excessively high crime rates).

Together, these facts form the social milieu that governs individual and collective behaviour.

Characteristics of Social Facts – Emile Durkheim

Durkheim identified four key characteristics of social facts:

1.    Externality:
Social facts exist outside the individual. They are pre-existing structures like laws, language, and religion that are independent of personal will or consciousness.

2.    Constraint:
Social facts exert coercive power over individuals. They are obligatory and often enforce compliance through norms, laws, or moral expectations (e.g., education system, legal rules).

3.    Generality:
Social facts are widespread and common to many members of a society. They are collectively shared norms and values, not tied to any one person.

4.    Independence:
They are independent of individual variations and personal attributes, arising from collective life and shared social existence.

Social facts are distinct from individual consciousness, possess social origins, and can be classified and studied scientifically. They are the foundational elements of Durkheim’s sociological method.

Externality and Constraint – Emile Durkheim’s Social Facts

Durkheim explains externality and constraint as core features of social facts:

A. Externality (in two senses):

1.    Pre-existence of Society:
Social facts like norms, values, and beliefs exist before an individual is born. They are internalized through socialization, but originate outside the individual.

2.    Individual as Part of a Collective:
An individual is only one element in a larger social whole. Hence, social facts exist independently of personal will and are distinct from psychological facts.

B. Constraint:

·        Social facts exercise moral force over individuals. If resisted, they assert themselves through social ridicule, isolation, or even legal sanctions.

·        They guide and regulate behaviour in collective life.

Durkheim emphasizes that social facts are not defined by being widespread alone, but by their collective and coercive nature, transmitted through socialization.
Social facts are external, general, and coercive, shaping individual behavior by linking personal action to societal norms and institutions.

Durkheim’s Rules for the Observation of Social Facts

Durkheim insisted that social facts must be studied as ‘things’—they are real, external, and must be approached empirically and objectively, not through intuition. He laid down three key methodological rules:

1.    Eliminate Preconceptions:
Sociologists must free themselves from everyday assumptions and adopt a neutral, unbiased approach to the subject of study.

2.    Formulate Concepts Precisely:
Since initial understanding may be limited, researchers should focus only on observable, external properties (e.g., understanding solidarity through the type of law—repressive or restitutive).

3.    Study Social Facts Independently of Individual Cases:
Social facts must be separated from personal experiences and studied in their collective forms—like laws, customs, morals, and proverbs—which act as shared standards in society.

Durkheim’s methodological rules emphasize that social facts must be studied scientifically, by focusing on their external, collective, and coercive aspects, and avoiding subjective or individual interpretations.

Durkheim’s Rules for Distinguishing Between the Normal and Pathological Social Facts

Durkheim explained that a social fact is ‘normal’ when it is appropriate and functional for the type of society in which it exists. A fact should be understood within its social context.

• Crime as a Normal Social Fact:
  Crime exists in all societies and is thus considered normal. It reflects deviation, which is necessary for social change and norm evolution.
• Example: Socrates—Though considered a criminal in Athens, his "crime" of independent thinking contributed to the moral advancement of society.
• Medical Analogy:
  Durkheim borrowed from medicine, stating that just as certain bodily functions are normal unless they deviate from the average, social facts are normal unless they exceed expected thresholds.
• When the frequency or intensity of a social fact (like crime or suicide) goes beyond the typical level, it becomes abnormal or pathological.
• Example: The abnormal rise in suicide in 19th-century Europe led Durkheim to investigate it sociologically.

Durkheim argued that normalcy or pathology of a social fact depends on its functionality, prevalence, and contribution to social stability. Deviation is not inherently bad—it may signal progress or necessary transformation.

Durkheim’s Rules for the Explanation of Social Facts

Durkheim outlined two main approaches to explain social facts: causal and functional.

1.    Causal Explanation (Why it exists)

o   Seeks to identify the cause that gives rise to a social fact.

o   Causes must be separate from functions.

o   A social fact must be explained by preceding social facts, not by individual psychological states.

2.    Functional Explanation (How it operates)

o   Examines the role or purpose the social fact serves in society.

o   A social fact’s function must be seen in relation to its social utility or the social need it fulfills.

3.    Rejection of Psychological Reductionism

o   Durkheim emphasized that sociological explanations should be social, not individual or psychological.

4.    Comparative Method

o   To establish causality or function, sociologists must use the comparative method, i.e., examine cases where phenomena co-occur or vary together.

o   This allows identification of whether one fact depends on or causes another.

Durkheim’s explanation of social facts is rooted in understanding their social causes and social functions, and he emphasized a comparative, scientific method to ensure objectivity in sociological analysis.

Conclusion

Emile Durkheim’s concept of social facts marks a foundational shift in sociological thought by establishing society as an object of scientific study, distinct from psychology or philosophy. By defining social facts as ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that are external to the individual, coercive in nature, and general throughout society, Durkheim emphasized the collective and constraining power of society over individuals.

His insistence on studying social facts as things, using objective, empirical methods, laid the methodological groundwork for sociology as a discipline. Distinctions between material and non-material, institutionalized and non-institutionalized, and normal and pathological social facts enable sociologists to systematically classify and understand the functioning and dysfunctions within societies.

Ultimately, Durkheim’s theory of social facts reinforces his broader aim: that society is a reality sui generis, possessing its own characteristics, laws, and dynamics, and must be understood through collective, not individual, explanations. This idea continues to guide sociological inquiry and makes Durkheim a pioneer of structural-functional analysis in modern sociology.

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